Proposal for Reforming Our Madrasa Education System Based on the Outline of an Ideal Islamic Education System - Professor Abubakar Rafiq Ahmad

1. Introduction

1.1. There is a well-known proverb in China: “If you want quick results, cultivate seasonal crops; but you will only harvest once. If you want results over a decade, plant fruit-bearing trees. But if you want results for a century, cultivate human beings.”

Undoubtedly, cultivating humans means establishing an education system. The foundation of a nation's history, culture, and civilization is built upon its education system, and these factors are the primary indicators of a nation's status on the world stage.

1.2. A nation rises to the pinnacle of civilization only when its education system is advanced, sound, and founded on a strong basis. Conversely, if a nation's education system is flawed, its long-term effects inevitably impact the mindset, behavior, culture, and civilization of the entire society. The benefits or harms of an education policy may not be immediately apparent within a decade or two, but a century's worth of history will certainly reveal its effects to those with insight.

1.3. I would like to present two examples of the impact of an education system. The first is the Islamic education system introduced by the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), and the second is the secular education system prevalent in the United States.

The first system is based on faith in Allah, belief in divine laws for the overall welfare of humanity, taqwa (the fear of accountability in the afterlife) as the source of morality, and the Prophet's example as the best model. The second system is based on human-made laws, with the preferences of the people as the foundation of sovereignty, entirely dismissing the concept of divine law and accountability in the afterlife.

Under the education system based on the first philosophy, Islamic civilization built a towering structure. For 653 years, Muslims not only ruled half the world and were recognized as an unstoppable global force but also led the fields of science, upheld civilization, and acted as the bearers of culture and the saviors of humanity. Even after the decline of the Abbasid caliphate, Muslim power became fragmented and weakened over time, yet in parts of Asia and Africa where Islamic ideals were still the foundation of education, governance remained more just, the people lived in safety and comfort, and human rights were preserved. It is worth noting that the current tragic state of the Muslim world—its ideological bankruptcy, cultural degradation, and backwardness in science and knowledge—is rooted in the gradual fall of the Muslim world into the hands of imperialist powers from the 17th to the 18th centuries and the subsequent alteration of its education system.

On the other hand, the secular education system of the United States has not brought the American people much peace or security, nor has it played a beneficial role for the world. Although their standard of living is claimed to be the highest, the removal of belief in God and fear of the afterlife from their education system has left the people living like wolves and sheep. Constantly engaged in a race to deceive, crush, and overpower each other, their society is plagued by exploitation, and the weak are constantly oppressed by the strong. Lacking any moral bonds, the people there have fallen into severe moral degradation. Despite immense progress in material science and technology, they are spiritually hollow. While they speak of human rights, their actions betray those very rights. Women, despite all their advocacy for freedom, are the most oppressed, reduced to mere objects to satisfy the unlawful sexual desires of predatory men. The law is determined by the will of the people, and as such, even vile crimes like homosexuality have been legalized based on majority support. This alone reveals the depths of their moral perversion.

As the United States is the world's largest superpower, its foreign policy is driven by the intent to subjugate smaller nations to its interests. Those who refuse to bow to its dominance are relentlessly pressured. From the perspective of the United States, the resurgence of Islam, which they term "fundamentalism," is their greatest threat, and they are determined to curb it. To this end, they have placed certain individuals in power in various Muslim countries, who, using every means at their disposal, craft their policies in line with American interests. A key aspect of this effort is the imposition of a secular education system. The British colonialists laid the foundation of this system in Bangladesh over two centuries ago, yet the presence of limited opportunities for Islamic education means that British policy is still not considered 100% successful. Now, there is an attempt to implement American policy, which seeks to eliminate even these limited opportunities for Islamic education. In this way, a blueprint has been created to crush our ideological foundation and push the entire nation towards moral bankruptcy.

1.4 Alongside the Islamic education system in this country, the harmful effects of the secular Western education system introduced by British imperialists did not escape the attention of a keen philosopher like Allama Iqbal. Referring to the new generation produced by this education system, he remarked:

"You have gained the knowledge of others,
You have adorned yourself with makeup borrowed from others,
Using their rouge.
I don’t know if you are truly ‘you’ or someone else.
Your intellect is imprisoned in the chains of another’s thoughts.
Even your deepest breath is drawn from someone else’s essence.
A borrowed language is on your lips,
Borrowed desires are embedded deep in your heart.
Your canary sings a borrowed song.
Your cypress tree is covered with borrowed leaves.
Even the wine in your goblet is borrowed,
And the goblet itself is borrowed too.
You are like a sun—look once at your true self,
Do not ever seek the light of another’s stars.
For how long will you dance in the candlelight of others’ gatherings?
If you have any feeling in your heart,
Light your own flame without delay." (1)

1.5 Explaining the importance of ideals in an education system, Allama Iqbal further states: "An individual's life depends on the relationship between the soul and the body, while a nation's life depends on its traditions and culture. If the life force of the soul ceases, the body becomes lifeless. A nation dies when its ideals are trampled upon." (2)

It goes without saying that the secular and ideal-less education system has failed to instill moral values in the souls and hearts of the new generation. They are preoccupied with satisfying the needs of the body and the mind, while they remain utterly indifferent to the soul’s and moral ideals’ requirements. An education system that disregards the nourishment of the soul and the need for ideals is deadly for a nation.
In Allama Iqbal's words:

"If knowledge is dedicated to enriching your body,
Then that knowledge is a poisonous snake.
But if knowledge is devoted to liberating your soul,
Then that knowledge is your true friend, your pride." (3)

1.6 Many conscious Western scholars have also realized the disastrous consequences of knowledge or education systems devoid of ideals. It is fitting to quote Professor Harold H. Titus here:

"More disastrous than the lack of a common store of knowledge is the absence of common ideals and convictions. Education has repeatedly failed to teach firm belief and discipline; science and research have dangerously disconnected themselves from human values and duty. ... Education has detached itself from the spiritual traditions of the past and failed to offer alternative values in their place. As a result, even the educated today are deprived of faith, devoid of values, and lacking a coherent worldview." (4)

2. Fundamental Characteristics of an Ideal Education System

2.1 An education system can only be considered ideal when, through it, a student’s faith (Iman) is strengthened, their character becomes refined, their understanding of life and the world becomes clear, the path to personal development is open, and their sense of responsibility toward society is strong. They should always have a conscious fear of accountability in the Hereafter for fulfilling their duties. They must remain aware of their identity, heritage, and history, and, above all, feel a deep responsibility to pass down the knowledge and experiences they have gained to the next generation. Any education system that lacks one or more of these elements will inevitably be considered incomplete and harmful.

2.2 (a) Clarity of Purpose: The most important feature of an ideal education system is the "clarity of purpose". The framework of such an education system must be designed with clear objectives: what ideals it aims to inspire in students, what mindset it seeks to enrich them with, and what kind of experienced citizens it intends to produce for the nation. Education, after all, is a means to achieve a goal. The goal of an ideal education system should be to inspire students with the core ideals of a nation and enrich them with its unique culture because life becomes meaningful through ideals. Knowledge or intelligence devoid of ideals cannot bring true benefit to any nation. Without a clear destination, no caravan can reach its rightful destination. The beliefs and ideals that allow a nation to stand tall must be ingrained in the education system. In short, the preservation and development of a nation’s religion and culture should be the primary purpose of education.

Allama Iqbal unequivocally declared:

"By knowledge, I mean sensory-based knowledge. Knowledge provides power, but this power must be subordinate to religion. For if it is not, it will be purely diabolic." (5)

A primary feature of the Islamic education system is the Islamization of knowledge—integrating human-acquired knowledge with divinely-revealed knowledge. In this way, knowledge must be devoted to the greater good of humanity and directed towards obedience to Allah.

The following verse from the Qur'an alludes to this:

"Allah bears witness that there is no god but Him, and so do the angels and those endowed with knowledge, upholding justice. There is no god but Him, the Almighty, the All-Wise." (6)

In light of this verse, scholars must be witnesses to the truth.

This goal can be achieved when the education system is comprehensively structured in the light of Islamic ideals. This perspective must also be kept in mind when writing and compiling new textbooks. When teaching subjects in social sciences, the Islamic perspective must be clearly explained to students, and care must be taken at every level of education to cultivate a sense of ideals in their minds. Needless to say, this should be the primary objective of education.

2.2 (b) Fostering Self-Awareness: The textbooks of an ideal education system must be designed in such a way that students can discover their personal identity and gain the highest understanding of their position in creation, as well as their duties and responsibilities.

The discovery of personal identity means understanding that humans are servants of Allah. Therefore, no behavior or action should contradict the concept of servitude to Allah. A person must know that humans are Allah’s vicegerents on earth. For this reason, Allah has made all of creation subservient to humans. Thus, humans must use all the resources of creation in such a way and for such purposes that enable them to fulfill their responsibilities as Allah's vicegerents. One of the primary duties of vicegerency is establishing the sovereignty of Allah, another is upholding righteousness and suppressing evil. An additional duty is dedicating all one’s strength, abilities, and knowledge to the welfare of humanity.

2.2 (c) Awareness of National History and Heritage: A key feature of an ideal education system is to provide students with an understanding of their national identity and the significant contributions of Muslims to world civilization. At least until the secondary level, students should be given the opportunity to study one or more books on this subject as part of the curriculum.

2.2 (d) Enrichment of Knowledge about Society and Environment: In addition to providing knowledge about personal identity and national heritage, an ideal education system should also ensure that students acquire knowledge about society and their surroundings. This is important because one of the core teachings of Islam is to instill a sense of social responsibility in individuals. Islam organizes people under society and the state, fostering in individuals a feeling of participation in social welfare. Since Islam identifies mutual duties and responsibilities between parents, family, society, and the state, the education system must include measures to make students aware of these duties and rights. To achieve this goal, textbooks on social science should be included in the curriculum from an Islamic perspective.

2.2 (e) Character Building: A fundamental difference between an ideal education system and a secular one is the emphasis placed on character building. In particular, special importance is given to the development of children's character, which is achieved through textbooks shaped by ideals and by providing students with proper guidance (tarbiyah). In the words of the Holy Qur'an, Allah has bestowed His favor upon the believers by sending His Messenger, who among other key tasks, purifies their character. (7) That is, through proper tarbiyah, He frees them from all moral impurities.

Education cannot fulfill its true purpose until it actively promotes good character formation. As Prof. Lester Smith says, "The notion of character formation is inherently linked with the vision of a moral society." (8)

Imam Ghazali also emphasizes that the education system should not only fill young minds with knowledge but also cultivate moral character and imbue them with the values of social life. (9)

At all levels of education, students must be taught the teachings of the Qur'an and the life principles of Prophet Muhammad (SAW). To this end, specific parts of the Qur'an and Hadith should be systematically included in the curriculum. Moreover, the overall environment of educational institutions must be conducive to character building. If either of these two aspects is compromised, the Islamic education system will not achieve its goal of producing ideal believers.

2.2 (f) Nurturing and Developing Talents: In an ideal education system, there should be mechanisms to nurture and fully develop students’ talents. Not all students possess the same level of intelligence, and it is natural that their interests and inclinations will differ. Some may have sharp intellects, while others may be of average ability. Some may be more inclined toward science, while others may enjoy literature and the arts. Some may aspire to become engineers, while others may pursue Islamic knowledge, or choose vocational education as a practical path to various crafts. This education system should allow students to study subjects according to their talents, interests, and inclinations, even offering them opportunities for higher studies and research.

To identify and nurture students' talents and interests from an early stage, the system should offer options to study their native language alongside Arabic (as the language of Islamic knowledge) and English (as the medium of modern subjects), as well as mathematics and science. By the time students reach the secondary level, their talents and inclinations will begin to emerge, guiding them on the paths they will pursue in higher education.

2.2 (g) Integrated Knowledge: One of the main characteristics of an ideal education system is that it provides integrated knowledge to students, rather than fragmented knowledge. This helps students develop a balanced and holistic understanding of life and the world amidst the diversity of visible phenomena. According to scholars from both the East and the West, the aim of all education is to provide a coherent vision of the world and a unified approach to life. (10)

The purpose of Islamic education is to develop a balanced personality. Therefore, this education system must ensure that students gain a broad perspective on knowledge and can develop a well-rounded understanding of life and its challenges before specializing in a particular field. Islam considers knowledge as integrated, interconnected, and comprehensive. The Qur'an itself is a prime example of integrated knowledge, encompassing faith-based teachings, ethical guidance, historical analysis, psychology, the mysteries of creation, scientific facts about the natural world, descriptions of the solar system, and the rationale for belief in the Hereafter, as well as a detailed concept of the afterlife.

3. What Should Bangladesh's Education System Look Like?

The question of what Bangladesh’s education system should be like was resolved 20 years ago in a proposal adopted at the International Islamic Education Conference organized by the OIC in the holy city of Mecca. The proposal was as follows:

The dual education systems in OIC member countries should be abolished and replaced with a unified education system. This system will be Islamic in nature. (11)

Bangladesh, being a member of the OIC, sent representatives to this conference and endorsed this decision. Therefore, Bangladesh is committed to implementing this decision in principle. The conference did not stop at merely adopting this proposal but also formed a committee for educational reform. Over the following years, this committee held multiple meetings in Islamabad, Dhaka, and Jakarta, successfully drafting recommendations for the curriculum up to the higher secondary level.

Although various OIC member states have already initiated steps to implement the proposed educational reforms, the government of Bangladesh has shown a reluctance to do so for unknown reasons. As a result, the question of what the education system in Bangladesh should look like remains a controversial issue.

3.2 Since it is impossible to introduce an alternative to the existing education system without government initiative, it is unlikely that these proposals will be implemented in Bangladesh’s general education system. It is deeply unfortunate that the Bangladesh government is currently pushing for the implementation of an educational policy that, if enacted, would leave students ideologically crippled. They would become utterly devoid of religion, morally bankrupt, narrow-mindedly tribal in outlook, and possess fragmented knowledge. May Allah save us from such a fate.

Currently, the madrasa education system is known as the Islamic education system in the country. While this system provides opportunities for students to study important subjects like Arabic language and literature, Qur'an and Hadith, Fiqh, Aqeedah, and Islamic history, it is heading in a direction that is both aimless and incomplete. Many intellectuals strongly feel the need for a better alternative to this system. Thus, I propose an alternative structure for the madrasa education system here.

4. Structure and Curriculum of the Proposed Alternative Islamic Education System

4.1 The proposed system will have the following four levels:

(a) Primary level: Six years (excluding pre-school) — from grades 1 to 6.

(b) Lower secondary level: Three years — from grades 7 to 9.

(c) Higher secondary level: Three years — from grades 10 to 12.

(d) Degree level: Three years.

(e) Postgraduate level: Two years.

In total, the system will consist of 17 years of education. Furthermore, if a student wishes to pursue research after obtaining a Master's degree, opportunities for M.Phil. and Ph.D. level studies and research will be available.

4.2 Discussion on Curriculum: The curriculum for the pre-school level is not included in the proposed system, nor is a syllabus suggested for this stage. This is because pre-school is primarily intended to familiarize children with the school environment and introduce them to letters and colors through play.

4.2 (a) Primary Level: The curriculum for the first three years at the primary level will focus on learning Arabic letters, Bengali writing and composition, correct Arabic pronunciation, Qur'anic recitation, basic arithmetic, essential supplications (duas), and the rules for ablution and prayer. Starting from the third grade, students will be introduced to the English alphabet and basic arithmetic operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The next three years will cover Bengali language and grammar, English and Arabic languages, Islamic studies (Aqeedah and Fiqh), social and environmental sciences, mathematics, and geography. Along with these academic subjects, practical lessons on behavior and morals, physical education and exercise, and quizzes designed to stimulate children's intellect will be included.

4.2 (b) Lower Secondary Level (Grades 7-9): The subjects taught at this level will include: Bengali, English, and Arabic languages and grammar (in all three languages), general science, social science, mathematics, Islamic history, Aqeedah and Fiqh, Tajweed, geography, and Bangladesh's history (with a focus on the arrival of Muslims in the region, the socio-economic conditions during their rule, and their contributions to education and culture).

The Aqeedah textbooks should be written with references from the Qur'an and Hadith, focusing on fundamental Islamic beliefs such as Tawheed (monotheism), prophethood, belief in the afterlife, moral values, and the concept of Taqwa (piety).

The Islamic history syllabus for the three years should include a brief biography of Prophet Muhammad (SAW) and the history of the Rashidun Caliphs. Instead of presenting Islamic history as a dry chronology of events, emphasis should be placed on the great ideals of Islam, its contributions to civilization, culture, science, and humanitarian service. It should also be ensured that the content in natural and social science textbooks does not conflict with Islamic principles.

4.2 (c) Higher Secondary Level (Grades 10 to 12): At this level, the compulsory subjects will include:

- Bengali (200 marks)

- Arabic (200 marks)

- Qur'an (100 marks)

- Hadith (100 marks)

- Islamic History (100 marks)

Total: 700 compulsory marks.

Students will have the freedom to choose the remaining 800 marks worth of subjects according to their talent and preferences from one of the following groups:

Group A:

- Fiqh and Usul al-Fiqh (200)

- Arabic Grammar and Balagha (200)

- Ilm al-Hadith and Ulum al-Qur'an (200)

- Economics or Political Science (200)

- Foreign Language (English, Urdu, or Persian) (200)

Students can select any 4 subjects from the above, totaling 800 marks.

Group B:

- Accounting (200)

- Bookkeeping and Mathematics (200)

- Economics or Political Science or Social Science (200)

- English (200)

Total: 800 marks.

Group C:

- Chemistry (200)

- Physics (200)

- Mathematics or Biology (200)

- English (200)

Total: 800 marks.

Group D:

- Economics (200)

- Political Science (200)

- Social Science (200)

- Logic (200)

- Agricultural Science (200)

- Fiqh and Usul al-Fiqh (200)

- Home Economics (200)

- Psychology (200)

Students can choose any 3 subjects from the above, along with English (200), totaling 800 marks.

4.2 (d) Degree Level (3 years): The degree level can be divided into two streams: General and Honors. However, in both streams, some fundamental subjects will be compulsory to foster moral values, Islamic awareness, and ideal development in students. Both the general and honors courses will have a duration of 3 years. The general (pass) course will follow an academic year system, while the honors course will be conducted on a semester system.

In the general (pass) course, students will study and be examined on subjects totaling 1500 marks over 3 years. The compulsory subjects will include:

- Bengali (200)

- Islamic History (200)

- English or Arabic (200)

Total: 600 marks.

For the remaining 900 marks, students can choose any 3 groups of optional subjects (300 marks each) from the following:

General:

- a. Hadith and Ulum al-Hadith

- b. Tafsir and Ulum al-Qur'an

- c. Fiqh and Usul al-Fiqh

- d. Aqeedah and Usul al-Din

- e. Economics

- f. Political Science

- g. Social Science

- h. Psychology

- i. Agricultural Science

- j. Geography, etc.

Science:

- a. Chemistry

- b. Physics

- c. Mathematics

- d. Biology

- e. Psychology

- f. Statistics

- g. Aqeedah and Usul al-Din

Commerce:

- Students can select any 3 subjects from commerce, or alternatively, they may choose one subject from the science group such as Aqeedah and Usul al-Din.

4.2 (e) Bachelor’s Honors Course: The bachelor’s honors course will only be available at Dhaka Alia Madrasa and a few selected madrasas. This course will follow a semester and credit hour system. The program will consist of 6 semesters, covering 30 subjects. Of these, 10 will be fundamental compulsory subjects, which are:

- Two subjects in Arabic language (100 marks each, 2 semesters)

- Two subjects in English language (100 marks each, 2 semesters)

- Two subjects in Islamic Studies (100 marks each, 2 semesters)

- Two subjects in Bangladesh Studies (100 marks each, 2 semesters)

- Two subjects on Contemporary Muslim Issues (100 marks each, 2 semesters).

The remaining 20 subjects will be chosen from different departments, some of which are listed below:

1. Department of Ulum al-Qur'an and Islamic Studies

2. Department of Al-Hadith and Ulum al-Hadith

3. Department of Arabic Language and Literature

4. Department of Aqeedah and Usul al-Din

5. Department of Al-Fiqh wa Usul al-Fiqh

6. Department of Natural Sciences

7. Department of Applied Sciences

8. Department of Medical Sciences

9. Department of Computer Science and Technology

10. Department of Business Administration, etc.

(The last five departments may be opened based on the necessary preparatory arrangements.)

4.2 (ch) Postgraduate (Master's) Level

The postgraduate program is recommended to be conducted in two phases:

- In the first year (Phase 1), there will be a course system with exams.

- In the second year (Phase 2), students will prepare a research dissertation.

The first phase will consist of two semesters, with a total of 1000 marks. The research dissertation in the second phase will carry 500 marks, making a total of 1500 marks for the master's program.

In addition, the university may allow students to pursue an MA degree through distance learning or through an exam-based system at the end of the academic year, if deemed necessary.

4.3 Centralized Examination and Certificate Names/Standards
Under the proposed education system, centralized exams will be held as follows:

- (a) Primary Certificate Exam: This exam will be conducted at the end of the 6th grade and will be mandatory.

- (b) Lower Secondary Certificate Exam: This exam will be conducted at the end of the 9th grade and will be a compulsory public exam.

- (c) Higher Secondary Certificate Exam: This exam will be conducted at the end of the 12th grade and will also be a compulsory public exam.

- (d) Postgraduate Course Exam: This exam will be administered by the university authority according to the existing regulations.

- (e) Postgraduate Research Program: As mentioned earlier, after obtaining a master's degree, researchers interested in further study will have the opportunity to pursue M.Phil. and Ph.D. degrees through research. For those wishing to pursue higher studies abroad, special efforts will be made to ensure that the certificates from various levels are equivalent to foreign degrees.

5. Certificate Issuing Authorities

To implement this proposed education system, the following administrative changes must be made:

5.1 The existing Bangladesh Madrasa Education Board will be transformed into an institute called the National Institute for Islamic Education. This institute will grant affiliation to institutions from the primary to the higher secondary levels and directly control examinations.

5.2 The Faculty of Shariah and Islamic Studies of the Islamic University Bangladesh will be relocated to Dhaka and re-established at the government-run Alia Madrasa.

5.3 Degree and master's level exams will be administered under the university's authority, and the institute mentioned above will control and conduct these as affiliated institutions. However, the affiliation of institutions and the development of syllabi for degree and master's level programs will be the responsibility of the university itself. M.Phil. and Ph.D. level research will be conducted exclusively at the university.

6. Certificate Names and Standards

In this proposed system, exams and certificates will be renamed. Instead of being referred to as Dakhil, Alim, Fazil, and Kamil, they will be known as:

- Primary Certificate or Ibtidayi Certificate

- Lower Secondary or Mutawassitah Certificate

- Higher Secondary or Sanawiyah Ulya Certificate

- Degree (BA General/Shariah/Quran and Sunnah/Aqeedah and Dawah/Agriculture, etc.) for pass or honors courses.

Similarly, certificates in science and commerce will be known as B.Sc. (Honors or Pass) and B.Com (Honors or Pass), respectively.

Currently, there is a tendency for madrasa students to transfer to colleges midway through their studies. Under this proposed education system, there will be no opportunity for students to enroll in college or university before completing their higher secondary level. Moreover, the introduction of a 3-year degree course in place of the current Fazil class will ensure that students believe their certificates are of high quality and will be widely accepted.

7. Examination Process

The current examination system needs to be simplified. It is concerning that students lose valuable time, sometimes up to a year, from exam preparation to result announcement and subsequent enrollment in the next level. Ideally, the time from exam preparation to result publication should not exceed 3 to 4 months.

To prevent this loss of time, the proposed system includes public exams every two years. However, to avoid the burden of many subjects being tested at once after three years, students from the lower secondary to the degree level will be required to take yearly exams on the subjects studied that year.

There will be no need to pass a selection exam or wait for results as a prerequisite for promotion to the next grade. If a student cannot participate in an exam for valid reasons, or if they fail or receive low marks in a subject, they will be given the opportunity to retake that subject's exam the following year.

8. Curriculum Design and Development

8.1 A committee under the Institute of Islamic Education will be responsible for designing the curriculum and textbooks up to the higher secondary level. This committee will convene from time to time to evaluate the content and quality of the curriculum and textbooks.

8.2 The university will be responsible for determining the curriculum, reference materials, and other academic resources for degree and master's levels.

References:

1. Professor Khurshid Ahmad, Principles of Islamic Education (Bengali version), page 7 (slightly modified)

2. Ibid, page 10 (slightly modified)

3. Ibid, page 10 (modified)

4. Ibid, pages 12-13

5. Iqbal, Bang-e-Daya

6. Al-Qur'an: Al-Imran -19

7. Al-Qur'an: Al-Imran -164

8. Principles of Islamic Education, page 21

9. Ibid, page 22

10. Ibid, page 20

11. See the documents from the conference held in 1977.

Author: Pro-Vice Chancellor, Islamic University, Chittagong