Islamization of Medical Science - Dr. Muhammad Golam Muazzam

We refer to specialized knowledge of the material world as “science.” Therefore, just like mathematics, physics, chemistry, and botany, medical science is also a branch of science. Historically, it is true that the early Muslim scientists, inspired by the Qur'an and Hadith, made significant contributions to various fields of knowledge, including medical science. Hence, developing medical science within the framework of Islamic principles is not a new issue. Although medieval Muslim physicians were heavily influenced by Greek medical science, they made necessary adjustments according to Islamic principles, as evident in today’s Unani medicine.

At first glance, science appears to have no religion. Therefore, the term "Islamization of medical science" might seem irrelevant. However, upon deeper reflection, it becomes clear that even the physical sciences, like physics, can be Islamized. Physics has given us many devices, including weapons of war. Without Islamization, scientific advancements may often be used for destructive purposes, as has happened with warplanes, explosives, and rockets. Islamization of these tools means their proper use, ensuring they are employed only for the benefit of humanity. This can only be achieved if inventors, manufacturers, and operators are motivated by a sense of humanity. Then, airplanes designed for fast travel would not be used to bomb innocent civilians.

Now let’s discuss medical science. Medical science refers to the study of the structure of the human body, its functioning, the causes of diseases, the changes in the body due to diseases, diagnosis, treatment methods, and prevention strategies. Since this science deals with the human body (and mind as well), and Islam is for humans, there is a necessary link and harmony between the two.

From the 8th to the 17th century, Muslims were leaders in medical science and other fields of knowledge. Physicians like Al-Razi, Ibn Sina, and Abul Qasim wrote textbooks that were mandatory reading in all universities. The Renaissance in Europe was a result of Europeans acquiring higher knowledge from Muslims.

Later, with the European industrial revolution, scientific advancement began, and over the past 150 years, Europe has far surpassed the East. Modern medical science developed during this time. As the West advanced in science, a conflict arose between Christianity, supported by the Bible, and scientific progress, culminating in the rejection of religion and its confinement within the church, while science continued to develop. This mindset has influenced the current Western approach to medical science, which operates in a secular and religion-free environment. However, in recent times, there has been a growing awareness among Muslim scientists, reducing the misunderstanding that science and religion cannot coexist.

Islam is based on the Qur’an and the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), which are in complete harmony with scientific knowledge. Like many others, I believe that the Qur’an encourages the study of science, making it a duty for Muslims. Since human-made and corrupted texts like the Torah and the New Testament offer limited scope for knowledge, many scientifically proven facts contradict these texts. Consequently, scientists, particularly from Jewish and Christian backgrounds, often find it difficult to reconcile their faith with their scientific pursuits. In contrast, Islam’s teachings align with scientific facts, which is why more Muslim scientists are being drawn toward Islam.

Given that modern medical science has evolved within a secular, often anti-religious framework, there is now a need for its Islamization.

Whether a person is Muslim or non-Muslim, their physical structure is the same. Yet, the significant differences in their lifestyles and behaviors manifest themselves clearly. Similarly, the medical science that deals with the same human body can either reflect Islamic or non-Islamic principles, depending on the methods and teaching approaches used.
Now, let’s discuss how to Islamize medical science, starting with medical education:

1. Anatomy

One of the first subjects a medical student learns is anatomy, followed by physiology.

Islam prohibits the mutilation of bodies, but this prohibition was against the desecration of the corpses of defeated enemies. For example, during the Battle of Uhud, when the body of Hazrat Hamza (RA) was mutilated by Hind, the wife of the then-pagan Abu Sufyan, it was both barbaric and inhumane. Such enmity that extends even after death is forbidden in Islam. However, because of this ruling, dissection of cadavers was historically banned, preventing Muslim scientists from making significant progress in anatomy.

For a medical education that includes learning body structures and performing surgeries, it is necessary to study anatomy through cadaver dissection. I firmly believe that dissection for educational purposes is not prohibited in Islam.

There are several key differences between how a Muslim and a non-Muslim should approach cadaver dissection:

(a) The body should be handled with respect, as it is Allah’s finest creation. It should not be treated as a mere object. Instead of appointing lower-class workers, such as non-Muslim doms, for this task, pious Muslims should be employed, especially women for handling female cadavers.

(b) Though the body will inevitably be undressed for dissection, it should remain covered until brought to the dissection table.

(c) If the cadaver is that of a Muslim, funeral prayers should be offered before dissection.

(d) Muslim students should begin the dissection with the remembrance of Allah, mindful that it is for educational purposes. By maintaining this reverent attitude, they will also enhance their learning.

(e) After dissection, any bones and tissues should be buried with respect.

(f) Parts that need to be preserved for study should be kept, but if they decay, they must be buried respectfully as well.

(g) While teaching anatomy, instructors should highlight the divine wisdom behind the structure and function of the human body. References from the Qur'an can be used to show that the creation of humans is not random but follows a divine plan.

(h) When teaching embryology, verses from the Qur'an about the creation of life can be cited to enrich students’ spiritual understanding along with their scientific education.

In this way, anatomy and related subjects like histology, embryology, and osteology can be Islamized.
Additionally, it’s essential to mention the contributions of Muslim scientists to anatomy during instruction. Many modern textbooks primarily emphasize the contributions of the European Renaissance and pre-Islamic periods, often neglecting Muslim contributions. For example, Abdul Latif (1162-1231) was the first to state that the human jawbone is a single bone, not a jointed one, as previously believed. Mentioning such contributions will boost the confidence of Muslim students.

Thus, it is possible to Islamize anatomy and other related branches of medical science.

The religious belief against autopsy has made Muslims, like followers of other faiths, reluctant in this regard. However, Muslims corrected some of the Greeks' mistakes by dissecting the bodies of monkeys and chimpanzees. Remarkable progress in dissection was only made in Europe after it was freed from religious constraints. It is puzzling why Muslim scholars did not firmly declare that autopsies for educational purposes are not anti-Islamic. In fact, the very first Hadith in Sahih Bukhari states that the outcome of every action is determined by its intention. This misconception still persists among the educated Muslim community. I will share a personal experience to illustrate this.

Between 1945-1947, I attended autopsy classes as a student at Kolkata Medical College. After the violent anti-Muslim riots in August 1946, a new problem arose in Kolkata. Under British rule, it was illegal to bring Muslim and Christian bodies to medical colleges for autopsies. After the 1946 riots, Muslim students were denied access to autopsy classes at the medical college, instigated by the Hindu Mahasabha leader Syama Prasad Mukherjee, who argued that Hindu bodies should not be dissected by Muslims. Even though the college was a government institution, most unclaimed Muslim bodies were buried by an organization named Mufidul Islam. A few of us Muslim students approached the officials of this organization for help. After much discussion, they agreed to provide us with Muslim bodies under certain conditions:

1. No non-Muslim should touch the Muslim body.

2. After the autopsy, the body parts must be returned to them for burial.

Thus, we were able to resolve this crisis.
It is time to clearly state that Muslim doctors must conduct autopsies, and the Muslim community must allow Muslim bodies to be dissected for the sake of education. Islam, being a practical and scientific way of life, cannot prohibit autopsy for educational purposes. Furthermore, if a diagnosis fails, post-mortem autopsies should be permitted with the consent of the deceased's heirs, to ensure the correct diagnosis. The lack of educational dissections in Muslim countries is hindering progress in medical science.

2. Physiology:

The purpose of physiology is to understand how the different organs of the body function. Due to the lack of dissection, Muslim scientists have made limited progress in this field. When teaching this subject, it is important to discuss the wonders of Allah's creation. In this regard, the discovery of pulmonary circulation by Ibn al-Nafis (1208-1288) is a significant contribution. He was the first to correct the Greek physician Galen's misconceptions. Although Europeans later falsely claimed this discovery as their own, it was disproven in 1936 when Ibn al-Nafis's writings were rediscovered. The delay in correcting this mistake hindered humanity's understanding of blood circulation. Unfortunately, many textbooks still fail to highlight Ibn al-Nafis’s contributions. Muslim educators should incorporate such topics into their writings and lectures to inspire Muslim students towards research and eliminate their inferiority complex.

3. Pharmacology:

When teaching pharmacology, students should be reminded of the Hadith in which the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) said, “For every disease, there is a cure.” This Hadith undoubtedly inspired Muslim scientists to discover new medicines. The significant contributions of Muslims to pharmacology must be included in the curriculum. One notable figure is Abdullah Ibn al-Baitar (d. 1248), who wrote two famous books on pharmacology, Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada and Kitab al-Mughni fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada, which laid the foundation for modern pharmacopoeia. Another prominent contributor is Al-Kindi (813-873).

The recent advancements in medicine are largely due to the progress in chemistry and biochemistry. However, since the West operates in a secular environment, there are no restrictions on the halal and haram status of medicine ingredients. While teaching pharmacology, special attention should be paid to ensuring that medicines adhere to Islamic guidelines. Haram substances cannot be used as medicine. Muslim pharmaceutical companies need to be cautious in this regard. For example, alcohol (ethyl alcohol) is a widely used substance in some medicines, but Islamic scholars and modern biochemists agree that it cannot be considered a medicine. During a visit to a pharmaceutical company in Karachi, I discovered that 15% alcohol was used in a liver extract medicine. I questioned the Canadian chemist there, and he responded that alcohol was used as a preservative and was preferred by people. I reminded him that Muslims consider alcohol haram and that it is not the only preservative available. I lodged a formal protest, and later, I received a letter confirming that the company had stopped using alcohol in their medicine.

It is also possible that biological medicines like liver extracts made in non-Muslim countries may come from haram sources. This needs to be addressed, and during Hajj, the organs of the millions of animals sacrificed can be used to produce halal medicines for the Muslim ummah. Factories for this purpose could be established near Makkah.

Alcoholic drinks like Brahmi, considered medicinal in the West, are not scientifically valid. European drinkers introduced this false concept. In Bangladesh, some Ayurvedic medicines are nothing more than alcohol mixed with herbal ingredients, and they are openly sold, even though they are essentially liquor shops. This harmful business must be stopped soon.

Additionally, other haram substances used in medicine must be eliminated. A committee of experts, including Islamic scholars, should be formed to review foreign and domestic medicines to ensure they adhere to Islamic guidelines. Therapeutics, or the method of applying medicines, also requires an Islamic moral framework.

Since a patient trusts a doctor with their treatment, the doctor must be competent. Entering the medical profession without proper education is sinful, as it deceives people. Similarly, prescribing unnecessary medicine for profit is unjust. Antibiotics, hormones, and other critical medicines must only be used after proper tests, as misuse can cause harm, and knowingly causing harm is sinful.

It was the renowned Muslim scientist Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari (810-890) who first stated that medicine does not cure diseases but merely helps the body recover. He also warned about diseases caused by incorrect treatments (iatrogenic illnesses). Therefore, a Muslim doctor should always remember that Allah is the ultimate healer, and doctors are merely a means. Thus, advertising guaranteed cures is not only ignorant but also misleading.

4. Pathology:

The primary function of pathology is to understand why diseases occur and to assist in diagnosis. This field is almost entirely a contribution of modern medical science, which is why allopathy is considered the most scientific and widely popular form of treatment.

Pathology is broadly divided into four main categories, each with further subdivisions. The four main categories are:

- (a) Histopathology: The microscopic examination of tissues from the body.

- (b) Biochemistry: The study of chemical processes within living organisms.

- (c) Microbiology: The study of microorganisms.

- (d) Hematology: The study of blood.

Histopathology

In anatomy, various tissues and organs of the body can be observed using microscopes, which is called histology. When changes due to disease are examined, it is known as histopathology. Tumors and other diseased tissues removed through surgery are studied under a microscope. There's nothing un-Islamic about this process. Observing the structure and nature of living cells through a microscope can inspire awe at the Creator’s design.

The small tissue sample used for examination should be handled with care, and the remaining parts should be buried properly, similar to the dissection process.

Biochemistry

This field analyzes the chemical components of the body. The levels of various chemicals may fluctuate with different diseases. For example, in diabetes, blood sugar increases, while in nephrosis, blood protein decreases. Most of the tests in this field do not conflict with Islam, except for one. In gastric analysis, patients are made to drink 7% alcohol, which is popular in Western countries but not suitable for Muslim nations.

In Rajshahi Medical College, I conducted research with a colleague to find an alternative method. We found that warm, unsweetened tea could be used instead of alcohol with similar results (1967). This alternative proved reliable, and it is important to ensure that any new medical tests comply with Islamic principles.

Microbiology

Microbiology involves the study of bacteria (bacteriology), viruses (virology), parasites (parasitology), and fungi (mycology). In some experiments, small animals like rabbits, mice, guinea pigs, chickens, cows, sheep, and horses are used, and these animals may be killed in the process. Since it is for the benefit of humanity, this should not be considered sinful, but the animals should be treated humanely.

In Europe, some church-supported institutions protest the use of animals in such experiments. This seems ironic, given the large-scale destruction they caused in places like Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Hematology

Hematology has two parts: (a) blood testing and (b) blood transfusions and blood bank management. Blood components are measured and analyzed for diagnostic purposes, and there is nothing against Islam in this. However, some may hesitate to have blood drawn during Ramadan, although this does not break the fast.

According to Surah 2:173, blood is forbidden as food, and blood transfusion is even more direct than eating blood. Some claim that this makes blood transfusion impermissible. However, the verse continues to say that in cases of necessity, forbidden things may be allowed. Therefore, life-saving blood transfusions are permissible, and Maulana Shafi Sahib’s fatwa agrees with this.

5. Medical Jurisprudence or Forensic Medicine

Modern forensic medicine is based entirely on the secular legal systems of the West, with no consideration of Islamic ethical laws. This field should be reformed to align with Islamic law.

In cases of sudden death, forensic investigations are conducted to determine the cause. Islamic law should be applied to cases such as fetal death, sexual crimes, and murder. In incidents involving women, it is preferable to have female doctors conduct the examination. Autopsies should be conducted respectfully, and female assistants should be involved when examining female bodies.

6. Community Medicine

The main goal of community medicine is to educate people about disease prevention. While some attention is given to this field today, there is little focus on individual education from an Islamic perspective. When an epidemic or natural disaster like floods or droughts occurs, proper preventive measures are taken. However, the health principles taught by Allah and His Prophet (PBUH) should be included in modern community medicine, as they are missing.

For example, washing hands before and after meals, trimming nails once a week, cutting the mustache, removing underarm and pubic hair, cleaning the nostrils and ears during ablution, and washing the hands, feet, and face multiple times a day—all these practices help prevent diseases. The regular use of miswak to clean teeth is also noteworthy. These practices, written in hygiene textbooks, should be taught both as health precautions and as acts that earn spiritual reward for following Allah and the Prophet (PBUH).

Today, family planning, under the guise of birth control, is emphasized in community medicine, but its harmful societal impacts are often overlooked. Islam is not against proper planning. Couples with fertility issues should also be included in family planning considerations. Reckless use of contraception and abortion to control population growth is not supported by Islam.

7. General Medicine

Currently, medicine has many specialized branches such as pediatrics, cardiology, neurology, psychiatry, nephrology, aviation medicine, tropical medicine, and so on. These fields usually do not require surgery. Most patients initially consult doctors specializing in these areas for their ailments.

When it comes to Islamizing medical practices, there should be an adequate number of male doctors for male patients and female doctors for female patients. This requires extensive planning so that in the next 20-25 years, we can achieve this goal, making female education and independence easier.

This leads to the discussion of nurses. Since Islam mandates modesty, male nurses should be appointed for male patients, and female nurses for female patients and children. Instead of forcefully feminizing the word “nurse,” using the terms "sebak" (male caregiver) and "sebika" (female caregiver) in Bengali is more appropriate.

Until there are enough female doctors, male doctors will have to be relied upon. However, attention must be given to quickly training sufficient numbers of female doctors and specialists, especially in women’s healthcare.

While some hospitals provide separate beds for female patients, true modesty is often lacking in female wards. Male doctors, nurses, ward boys, and visitors can enter female wards without restriction. This is undesirable. Temporary curtains should be placed around each bed during male doctors' visits and during visiting hours in the evening. Most hospitals already have such curtain arrangements for critically ill patients.

In hospital wards, apart from doctors and nurses, there are ward masters, ward boys, and female aides. Male ward masters and doctors, as well as visitors, are currently allowed to enter female wards, which is not appropriate. Male and female aides move freely across wards without any restrictions, as no importance is given to modesty.

Female doctors, nurses, and aides should work in hospitals wearing headscarves or scarves with their aprons, respecting Islamic principles of modesty. Currently, hospitals often place male and female wards side by side, with doors left uncovered, and no proper security in place.

Hospitals must create separate male and female wards, with children’s wards located alongside the women’s section. However, it must be acknowledged that if a male doctor is urgently needed for a female patient due to a lack of a female specialist, he may examine and treat her in the absence of an available female doctor.

8. Surgery

Here, too, modesty must be maintained. During surgery, women’s bodies should not be unnecessarily exposed beyond what is needed. In fact, only the part to be operated on is exposed, with the rest of the body carefully covered. The precautions taken by doctors and nurses to prevent infection align well with Islamic principles. Surgery is a complex and risky procedure, and the trust between doctor and patient is critical. Therefore, if a trustworthy female specialist is not available, a male specialist should be consulted without hesitation. Intentions, as always, remain between the individual and Allah. Many surgeries are long and taxing, making it rare to find female general surgeons. The principles of medicine also apply to surgery.

9. Obstetrics & Gynecology

Although the fundamental principles of medicine and surgery apply here, this field requires a bit more discussion. As these diseases are related to the female reproductive organs, it is undeniable that doctors, nurses, and aides in this field should be female. Since many Muslim women do not wish to be treated by male doctors due to modesty, Christian missionaries established the first obstetrics and gynecology hospitals in this region, using this opportunity for religious outreach. The negative impact of such missionary hospitals is evident. Therefore, in Bangladesh and all Muslim countries, these departments must be exclusively managed by women.

10. Ophthalmology (Eye Care)

Since the face must be uncovered for the doctor, female doctors and nurses should be compulsory for female patients in this field as well. Eye surgeries are shorter and less demanding, making it easier for women to excel in this field.

11. ENT (Ear, Nose, Throat)

The same principles that apply to ophthalmology also apply here.

Muslim physicians made significant contributions to medicine in the past, which must be remembered while teaching these subjects. The world-renowned accomplishments of figures like Al-Razi (850-925), Ibn Sina (990-1037), and Al-Jurjani (died 1136) in medicine and surgery should be highlighted. Likewise, the world-renowned surgical contributions of Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (936-1013), who invented many surgical instruments, should be remembered.

In the field of ophthalmology, Ibn al-Haytham and Ibn Rushd’s contributions in the 12th century, as well as those of Masawaih Junior (11th century) and Baha’ al-Din (16th century), who discovered anesthetics, must also be taught.

Now, let's discuss Islamizing the hospital environment and making medical education more appealing.

Educational verses from the Quran and Hadith should be displayed in various parts of the hospital and inside the wards. Cleanliness-related advice should be posted throughout the hospital as well.

There should be a good library in the hospital for both patients and staff, containing religious books, novels, history, and other types of literature. A catalog of all available books should be maintained. A ward boy or library assistant should regularly visit the wards with the catalog to ask patients which books they would like to read and then deliver them later. The library management should ensure the proper distribution and collection of books.

Separate prayer rooms should be available for men and women in the hospital, allowing ambulatory patients to perform congregational prayers. Anyone working in the hospital can lead prayers when needed. There should be a large mosque within the hospital or college grounds, where outside visitors can also join in congregational prayers. A competent imam should be appointed at a proper salary to lead these prayers, and he should regularly visit each ward to assist those wishing to repent or ask questions regarding Islamic rulings. Many patients, especially, need to be taught how to perform dry ablution (tayammum). The hospital should provide prepared clay stones for this purpose. Let me share a personal experience in this regard.

After the Ayub Martial Law was declared in this country, a Bengali colonel (now deceased) was appointed as the administrator of Dhaka Medical College and Hospital. At that time, there was no arrangement for congregational prayers at the medical college, though prayers were offered in a room above the hospital veranda. Around 1959, the west-side veranda was demolished for the construction of a new outdoor building, which also removed the prayer space. No alternative arrangement was made, so the Muslim employees began offering all their prayers, including the Friday prayers, in the long corridor on the west side.

One afternoon, I met the administrator in front of the college building. I took the opportunity to say, "Sir, you demolished the hospital's prayer space but did not provide an alternative. Any room on the veranda could have been allocated." He replied, "There is simply no space. Tell me where I can arrange it." I suggested, "There are two large offices in both the college and hospital buildings. If you allocate one for prayers, finding another office for your administration won’t be difficult." Although he seemed slightly taken aback by my directness, he laughed and said, "Oh, you've turned into quite the mullah, haven’t you? Alright, let’s see what can be done." Eventually, a mosque was constructed on the second floor of the outpatient building.

To this day, no official position for an imam has been approved for the hospital mosque. This wasn’t approved during the so-called Islamic state of Pakistan, nor in independent Bangladesh. In many places, imams are paid as fourth-class employees (equivalent to a peon), and the worshippers collect additional funds for the imam’s payment. During Ayub’s regime, despite many efforts, no imam position was sanctioned at the beautiful mosque of Rajshahi Medical College, even though a former health minister had promised it but did not fulfill his commitment.

It would be easy to establish a maktab (religious school) or a primary school for the children of hospital employees. A suitable scholar could be appointed as a teacher of Islamic studies. In the early Islamic era, hospitals like the one in Baghdad were the predecessors of modern hospitals, and in some respects, they were of even higher standards. Patients who came from far-off places had a guesthouse where their companions could stay and eat for up to three days, as Islam considers hospitality to last for only three days.

Given the lack of resources in the government today, a two-tier system for guest accommodation should be arranged: wealthier people can rent rooms in a motel-like facility, while the poor can stay in large hall-type rooms free of charge and purchase food from a restaurant. Patients should be admitted within three days, and after that, no one should be allowed to stay in the guesthouse. Of course, there should be separate accommodations for women.

Patient food: Due to a lack of honesty, food supply in government hospitals is currently unsatisfactory. The allocated budget per patient is already small, and after theft by employees and bribery to higher-ups, what remains is inadequate. Those who can afford it now supply their own food. It is essential to employ honest staff to oversee food supplies and ensure proper supervision.

Hospital Canteen: Clean and hygienic canteens are a mere fantasy in our country. Unless all staff adhere to Islamic values of honesty, it will be impossible to ensure justice in providing food and medicine to patients. Attention must be given to these issues while Islamizing medical education.

This also applies to the hospital’s laundry staff, contractors, and storekeepers. Toilets and washrooms must be kept clean at all times. The current state of government hospital latrines is shameful.

Student Admissions: Islam does not support co-education, so separate educational institutions are essential for training male and female doctors. In Pakistan, and even in predominantly Hindu India, there are separate medical colleges for women.

In addition to academic talent, a doctor must be a model of moral integrity and social service. Therefore, those who lack moral character should not be admitted. From an Islamic perspective, only students who are both academically capable and possess strong ethical character should be admitted. A selection committee, capable of assessing these qualities, will approve admissions. Muslim students must have a sufficient understanding of the Quran and Hadith and adhere to Islamic values of justice and ethics.

If, after admission, any student is found to be unable to follow even the minimum requirements of Islamic Shariah, they should be given a chance to reform. If no improvement is seen, they must be expelled from the college. Non-Muslims need only have a satisfactory moral character.

Teacher Recruitment: Just as moral character is essential for students, it is even more critical for teachers. No anti-Islamic teachers can be allowed in the institution, although we should not be extreme—only Allah knows the intentions of the heart.

Medical institutions should not be directly managed by the government. Instead, they should be part of a university system or an independent, autonomous body, governed by a separate senate and faculty board, with government representatives included. Teachers will be appointed exclusively for the institution, with no threat of transfers.

Salaries for Medical Teachers: Several factors must be considered in this regard. Since doctors are now recognized as graduates, their pay scale is aligned with other graduates. However, this is unfair because a doctor must study for five rigorous years after high school, whereas most graduates complete their degrees in two to three years. Moreover, only highly capable students are admitted to medical schools. Therefore, the practice in the USA should be adopted, where the initial medical degree is called M.D. (Doctor of Medicine), allowing doctors to receive a higher starting salary.

Afterward, a division should be made between teaching and non-teaching cadres, ensuring that only those interested in teaching and research become teachers. Those in non-practicing fields like anatomy or physiology should receive an additional salary equivalent to their basic pay as compensation (Non-practicing allowance). Clinical doctors, who practice while teaching, will not receive any additional salary. No teacher should be promoted to a higher rank without a certain number of published research papers. All of this must be done based on Islamic principles of justice.

Author: Former Principal, Rajshahi and Mymensingh Medical Colleges.